What is Word Stress?

In English, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one word, we accentuate ONE syllable. We say one syllable very loudly (big, strong, important) and all the other syllables very quietly.

Let's take 3 words: photograph, photographer and photographic. Do they sound the same when spoken? No. Because we accentuate (stress) ONE syllable in each word. And it is not always the same syllable. So the shape of each word is different.

click word to hear	shape	total syllables	stressed syllable
PHO TO GRAPH		3	#1
PHO TO GRAPH ER		4	#2
PHO TO GRAPH IC		4	#3

This happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEACHer, JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE, converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant, deMAND, etCETera, etCETera, etCETera

The syllables that are not stressed are weak or small or quiet. Native speakers of English listen for the STRESSED syllables, not the weak syllables. If you use word stress in your speech, you will instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.

Try to hear the stress in individual words each time you listen to English - on the radio, or in films for example. Your first step is to HEAR and recognise it. After that, you can USE it!

There are two very important rules about word stress:

1. One word, one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. So if you hear two stresses, you have heard two words, not one word.)
2. The stress is always on a vowel.

On Route or En Route?

This is another one of those cases that’s not a classic troublesome pair. Meaning one is correct and the other incorrect. The stems from people writing down what they think they have heard. Similar problems come up with Here! Here! versus Hear! Hear! and would of versus would have. I have started noticing these common errors a lot on social media. It might be that people simply just pen or type what they think it might be hearing.

Incorrect: on route. 
Correct: en route

An incorrect usage does make sense in a funny kind of way, and it sounds the same too, but, it in reality it isn’t!

So, as we probably know, it means “on the way” to or from somewhere. It comes from the French – 18th Century French, so it’s been around for long enough that it’s stuck and isn’t likely to be that pliable. You can use on route, but only in a very specific sense, when talking about named roads in places like America. And then there’ll be a capital in the middle, and you’re not using it in precisely the same way. So, “On Route 66 I found a lovely motel” – fine.  But in all other cases: “I was en route to Chicago when I happened upon a charming hotel” – also fine.

This also applies to phrases like en masse. If there’s an “on” sound and the other word looks like it might be French, check it!

Idioms and Clichés

Many people struggle with grasping these two concepts. Idioms and clichés are two different things. While idioms can be clichés and clichés can be idioms, they must be kept separate.

So, what is the difference between an idiom and a cliché?

An idiom is an expression. Its meaning is not predictable from the usual grammatical rules of a language or from the usual meanings of the expression's constituent elements. Example, the expression kick the bucket meaning “to die” has nothing to do with kicking or buckets. However, the entire expression has a set meaning that is familiar to most people. Idioms can be analysed with regards to how idiomatic they are, and there is not necessarily agreement about whether or not something is an idiom. The word “idiom” is usually positive, and people use “idiom” to refer to expressions that they approve of but that are otherwise problematic.

A cliché is a word or phrase that has been overused to the point of having lost its freshness or vigour. It can be a fashionable phrase (“at the end of the day...”), a proverb (“don't count your chickens...”), a simile (“strong as an ox”), or a single word (“Whatever.”). The word cliché is almost always pejorative, and people are told to avoid them (“Avoid clichés like the plague,” as one self-referential joke has it).

An idiom can be a cliché. In fact, it’s likely that many idioms will be somewhat clichéd. However, it does not have to be; and clichés are by no means always idioms.

For clichés, on the one hand, to overuse that expression, one should try to avoid hackneyed language.

Idioms that are not clichés will rarely bother anyone, as long as the meaning of the idiom is not ambiguous.

Sloppy Speech Habits

You may look good on paper or in a suit but if you're looking to nail your big interview, looks aren't everything. How you sound is often more important. Countless job seekers let careless speech habits kill their chances of landing a job.

Here are six common language mistakes and how to keep them from ruining your interview:

1. Nonwords

Filler words such as "um," "ah," "you know," "OK" or "like" tell the interviewer you're not prepared. A better strategy is to think before you speak, taking pauses and breaths when you lose your train of thought.

2. Up-Talk

A singsong or rising inflection at the end of every sentence creates a tentative impression and makes it sound as though you're asking a question instead of making a definitive statement. You need to speak with conviction when selling yourself in an interview.

3. Grammatical Errors

The interviewer may question your education when you use incorrect grammar/slang. Expressions such as “ain't,” “she don't,” and “me & my friend” aren't appropriate. Be sure you speak in complete sentences and that tenses agree.

4. Sloppy Speech

Slurring words together or dropping their endings impairs the clarity of your message. To avoid slurring and increase understanding, speak slowly during an interview. Some common incorrect pronunciations include "aks" for "ask," "ath-a-lete" for "athlete," "wif" for "with" and "dree" for "three."

5. Speed Talking

While everybody is a bit anxious during an interview, you don't want your information to fly by like a speeding bullet. A rapid speaking rate is difficult to follow, and speed talkers are seen as nervous. Slow down your racing heart by doing some breathing exercises before the interview. Avoid rushing, listen to the question, and then count two beats in your head before answering. When you finish a sentence, count two beats again before continuing. Don't be afraid of silence. Pausing is an effective communication technique.

6. Weak Speak

Wimpy words modify or water down your conviction and in the end your position. When you pepper a conversation with "hopefully," "perhaps," "I feel," "kind of" and "sort of," the message you convey is a lack of confidence. Use power words such as "I'm confident that," "my track record shows," "I take the position that," "I recommend" or "my goal is."

You don't have to study elocution to speak well. Simply slow down, take time to pronounce all the syllables and leave slang at home.

Ellipsis

You see it everywhere, but most people don’t know what it’s called or how to use it properly.

Luckily, the ellipsis isn’t nearly as confusing as the comma. It’s relatively easy to learn how to use it correctly and how to refer to it properly.

An ellipsis is a series of three points with spaces between them (. . .)

Definition

An ellipsis – the omission of a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage — is indicated by ellipsis points (or dots)… Ellipsis points are three spaced periods ( . . . ), sometimes preceded or followed by other punctuation.

Singular and Plural
The word ellipsis is not plural. In other words, it refers to the three points, together, as a single unit, which is often colloquially referred to as dots or periods. Here is an ellipsis:

( . . . )

The plural of ellipsis is ellipses. This would indicate more than one set of three dots:

( . . . ) ( . . . ) ( . . . )

This punctuation mark may also be called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, or periods of ellipsis. But to keep things simple, let’s just stick with the word ellipsis.

Omissions

The ellipsis is primarily used to indicate an omission. It can be an intentional omission, such as when you are using a quotation but want to skip over a portion of it. 

Example: The name of a minor in a legal case.

Purpose of the Ellipsis

It is inserted into a quotation/speech to indicate the omission of text from an original quotation.

Rules

There are quite a few simple rules for the proper use of ellipses, which are used more often in legal writing than most forms of writing (Yes, I have come across this far too many times). Failure to use the proper form of an ellipsis could misrepresent the work of another person and result in legal liability for the writer. Correct use of ellipses, on the other hand, shows that the writer has carefully attended to detail, and thus increases the reader's confidence in the reliability of the written work. 

Go through these for a better understanding:

1.       When placing an ellipsis in the middle of a quotation to indicate the omission of material, use three points with spaces before and after the ellipsis.

Incorrect: “The First Amendment provides that ‘Congress shall make no law respecting. . .the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances’.”

Correct: “The First Amendment provides that ‘Congress shall make no law respecting . . . the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances’.”

2.       When placing an ellipsis at the end of a quotation to indicate the omission of material, use four points -- a three-point ellipsis and a period. The ellipsis should follow a blank space.

Incorrect: “The First Amendment provides that Congress shall make no law. . . abridging the freedom of speech. . .”

Correct: “The First Amendment provides that Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech . . . .”

3.       When omitting one or more entire paragraphs, indicate the omission by indenting four points and placing them on a separate line. If the quoted material is 50 words or more, use indented margins and do not use any quotation marks.

Incorrect:

“Poverty imposes costs on the non-poor that warrant, on strictly economic grounds and without regard to ethical or political considerations, incurring some costs to reduce it. For example, poverty in the midst of a generally wealthy society is likely to increase the incidence of crime: the forgone income of a legitimate alternative occupation is low for someone who has little earning capacity in legitimate occupations, while the proximity of wealth increases the expected return from crime, or, stated another way, the cost of honesty. . . . An individual who feels endangered or appalled at the poverty around him can contribute to an organisation designed to alleviate that poverty an amount equal to the benefit that he would derive from the reduction of poverty enabled by his contribution (net of administrative costs).”

Correct:

“Poverty imposes costs on the non-poor that warrant, on strictly economic grounds and without regard to ethical or political considerations, incurring some costs to reduce it. For example, poverty

. . . .

An individual who feels endangered or appalled at the poverty around him can contribute to an organisation designed to alleviate that poverty.”

4.       Never leave a point in an ellipsis floating at the beginning or end of a line of text. (However, you may have a period at the end of a fully quoted sentence at the end of a line of text and begin the ellipsis on the next line.)
 

Incorrect: "His refusal to cooperate with the court and name the source .
. . resulted in a contempt citation."

Also Incorrect:

"His refusal to cooperate with the court and name the source . .
. resulted in a contempt citation."

Correct: "His refusal to cooperate with the court and name the source . . .
resulted in a contempt citation."

Also Correct:

"His refusal to cooperate with the court and name the source
. . . resulted in a contempt citation."

Also Correct:

"The period may properly be placed at the end of a sentence.
. . . The ellipsis may then be placed on the following line, indicating the omission of an intervening sentence."

The Semicolon in Modern times

The Semicolon use appears to have been declining in recent years, possibly because fewer and fewer people are confident about the proper role of this punctuation mark. Here are several ways to use the semicolon as an effective tool for enhancing clarity and emphasis in your writing.

1. Use a semicolon as a soft period. By using a semicolon instead of a period between two sentences, you show that those two sentences have a closer relationship to each other than they do to the sentences around them. The semicolon, in a sense, connects the sentences. (If you added a coordinating conjunction and a comma, you would show less of a connection; and with a period you show only the connection of proximity.)

2. Use a semicolon to connect main clauses containing internal punctuation. Think of a comma as a brief pause, a semicolon as a more moderate pause, and a period as a stop, and you can see the logic of the hierarchy.

·         When he faints through desire, she comes to his aid; but when he revives, she scorns him. 

·         Whatever is left in the hands of chance must be subject to vicissitude; and when any establishment is found to be useful, it ought to be the next care to make it permanent.

·         The events we experience are less important than the meaning we give to them; for life is about meaning, not experience.

      

      I hope that this piece was helpful, Grace. Thank you very much for your email. Do hope to hear from you again.

Semicolon

Semicolons help you connect closely related ideas when a style mark stronger than a comma 

is needed. By using semicolons effectively, you can make your 

writing sound more sophisticated.

                                      ____________________________________________________________

The semicolon is a punctuation mark with several uses. While terminal marks like full stops, exclamation marks, and question marks, mark the end of a sentence, the semicolon is normally a sentence internal, making it a secondary boundary mark. Semicolons are intermediate in between terminal marks; their strength is equal to that of the colon. 

Semicolons are followed by a lower case letter, unless that letter is the first letter of a proper noun like the word I or Paris.

Why should one use a semicolon?

The main task of the semicolon is to mark a break that is stronger than a comma but not as final as a full stop. It’s used between two main clauses that balance each other and are too closely linked to be made into separate sentences, as in these two examples:

• The road runs through a beautiful wooded valley; the railway line follows it.
• An art director searched North Africa; I went to the Canary Islands.

You can also use a semicolon as a stronger division in a sentence that already contains commas:

• The study showed the following: 76% of surveyed firms monitor employee Web-surfing activities, with 65% blocking access to unauthorised Internet locations; over one-third of the firms monitor employee computer keystrokes; half reported storing and reviewing employee emails; 57% monitor employee telephone behaviour, including the inappropriate use of voice mail.

Why use a semicolon instead of a full stop?

The semi-colon is used in a sentence when there is a pause which is longer than a comma, but shorter than a full stop. A semi-colon can be used instead of a full stop when the two parts of the sentence are too closely related in meaning to be put into separate sentences.

• We did not go into the theatre before our friends arrived; instead, we waited outside.

Semi-colons can also be used between items on a list, when the items consist of a number of words, or when the use of commas alone would be confusing.

• The committee consisted of Carol Jones, the staff representative; Bill Johnson, the boss; Terry Smith, the local doctor; Murray Todd, the fisherman; and Mary Renshaw, the cook.

A semicolon can also be used before a transition (connecting) word or phrase. The transition words you are probably most familiar with include however, therefore, hence, thus, consequently, nevertheless and meanwhile.

• It was the best of times; however, it was also the worst of times.

Semicolon usage

Link two independent clauses to connect closely related ideas.

• Some people write with a word processor; others write with a pen or pencil.

Link clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs or transitional phrases to connect closely related ideas.

• But however they choose to write, people are allowed to make their own decisions; as a result, many people swear by their writing methods.

Link lists where the items contain commas to avoid confusion between list items.

• There are basically two ways to write: with a pen or pencil, which is inexpensive and easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which is more expensive but quick and neat.

Link lengthy clauses or clauses with commas to avoid confusion between clauses.

• Some people write with a word processor, typewriter, or a computer; but others, for different reasons, choose to write with a pen or pencil.

Avoid using a comma when a semicolon is needed:

• Incorrect: The cow is brown, it is also old.
• Correct: The cow is brown; it is also old.

Cover letters

What is a cover letter?

To be considered for almost any position, you will need to write a letter of application. Such a letter introduces you, explains the purpose of your application, highlights your experiences, and requests an opportunity to meet with the potential employer. We refer to this important piece of material as a Cover Letter.

Precisely because this letter is your introduction to an employer, and because first impressions count, you should take great care to write an impressive and effective letter. Remember that the letter not only tells of your accomplishments but also reveals how effectively you can communicate.

How to format a cover letter

·         Type each letter individually, or use a word processor.

·         Use good quality bond paper.

·         Whenever possible, address each employer by name and title.

·         Each letter should be grammatically correct, properly punctuated, and have perfect spelling. It also should be immaculately clean and free of errors. Proofread carefully!

·         Use conventional business correspondence form. If you are not certain of how to do this, ask for help.

What to include in a cover letter

·         Try to limit your letter to a single page. Be succinct.

·         Assess the employer’s needs versus your skills. Then try to match them, in the letter, in a way that will appeal to the employer’s self-interest.

·         Tailor your letter to each job opportunity. Demonstrate knowledge of the organisation to which you are applying.

·         Write in a style that is mature but clear; avoid long and intricate sentences and paragraphs; avoid jargon.

·         Use action verbs and the active voice; convey confidence, optimism, and enthusiasm coupled with respect and professionalism.

·         Show some personality, but avoid hard-sell, gimmicky, or unorthodox letters.

·         Arrange the points in a logical sequence; organise each paragraph around a main point.

Opening paragraph

·         State why you are writing. Establish a point of contact (Ex. advertisement in a specific place for a specific position).

·         Give a brief idea of who you are (Ex. a recent PhD in History).

·         Highlight a few of the most salient points from your enclosed resume that are important for the position you are seeking.

·         Show how your education and experience suit the requirements of the position.

·         State how you could contribute to the organisation.

Closing paragraph

·         Stress action. Politely request an interview at the employer's convenience.

·         Offer to provide additional information (Ex. a portfolio, a writing sample, a dossier, an audition tape).

·         Thank the reader for his/her consideration and indicate that you are looking forward to hearing from him/her.

Questions to guide your writing

·         Who this letter targeted at?

·         What is my objective?

·         What are the objectives and needs of the person/people reading this?

·         How can I best express my objective in relationship to the employer’s objectives and needs?

·         What specific benefits can I offer to the employer and how can I best express them?

·         What opening sentence and paragraph will grab the attention of my employer in a positive manner?

·         How can I maintain the interest and desire of a potential employer throughout the letter?

·         What closing paragraph will ensure the reader of my capabilities and persuade him/her to contact me?

·         Is the letter my best professional effort?

·         Have I spent sufficient time drafting, revising, and proofreading the letter?

Catch more on www.say-it-with-sam.blogspot.com

Proofreading

Proofreading means examining your text carefully to find and correct typographical errors and mistakes in grammar, style, and spelling. Here are some tips.

Before You Proofread

·         Be sure you've revised the larger aspects of your text. Don't make corrections at the sentence and word level if you still need to work on the focus, organisation, and development of the whole paper, of sections, or of paragraphs.

·         Set your text aside for a while between writing and proofing. Some distance from the text will help you see mistakes more easily.

·         Eliminate unnecessary words before looking for mistakes.

·         Know what to look for. From the comments of your professors or a writing centre instructor on past papers, make a list of mistakes you need to watch for.

When You Proofread

·         Work from a printout, not the computer screen.

·         Read out loud. This is especially helpful for spotting run-on sentences, but you'll also hear other problems that you may not see when reading silently.

·         Use a blank sheet of paper to cover up the lines below the one you're reading. This technique keeps you from skipping ahead of possible mistakes.

·         Use the search function of the computer to find mistakes you're likely to make. Search for "it," for instance, if you confuse "its" and "it's;" for "-ing" if dangling modifiers are a problem; for opening parentheses or quote marks if you tend to leave out the closing ones.

·         If you tend to make many mistakes, check separately for each kind of error, moving from the most to the least important, and following whatever technique works best for you to identify that kind of mistake.
For instance, read through once (backwards, sentence by sentence) to check for fragments; read through again (forward) to be sure subjects and verbs agree, and again (perhaps using a computer search for "this," "it," and "they") to trace pronouns to antecedents.

·         Always BEGIN and END with a computer spell check. But remember that a spell checker won't catch mistakes with homonyms (e.g., "they're," "their," "there") or certain typos (like "he" for "the").

How to write a review of literature

What is a review of literature?

The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline and from assignment to assignment.

A review may be a self-contained unit -- an end in itself -- or a preface to and rationale for engaging in primary research.  A review is a required part of grant and research proposals and often a chapter in theses and dissertations.

Generally, the purpose of a review is to critically analyse a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles.

Writing the introduction

In the introduction, you should:

·         Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an appropriate context for reviewing the literature.

·         Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.

·         Establish the writer's reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature; explain the criteria to be used in analysing and comparing literature and the organisation of the review (sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not included (scope).

Writing the body

In the body, you should:

·         Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case studies, etc.) according to common denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology, etc.

·         Summarise individual studies or articles with as much or as little detail as each merits according to its comparative importance in the literature, remembering that space (length) denotes significance.

·         Provide the reader with strong “umbrella” sentences at beginnings of paragraphs, “signposts” throughout, and brief “so what” summary sentences at intermediate points in the review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.

Writing the conclusion

In the conclusion, you should:

·         Summarise major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.

·         Evaluate the current "state of the art" for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and findings, and areas or issues pertinent to future study.

·         Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific endeavour, or a profession.